From ruins to rules: How the destruction of a monastery reshaped heritage protection
The Battle of Monte Cassino was a pivotal event in the Italian campaign during the Second World War.
While Monte Cassino eventually resulted in an Allied victory, the battle is infamous for its destruction of the historic Benedictine monastery and its aftermath led to a review of rules protecting historical sites.
It contributed to the formulation of international agreements, such as the 54 Hague Convention, reflecting the global recognition of the importance of preserving cultural heritage in times of war.
Professor Peter Stone, Newcastle University professor and UNESCO Chair, stresses the profound impact of cultural property.
"Cultural property gives individuals and communities a sense of place, a sense of belonging, a sense of identity, and a sense of dignity," he said.
"And if that cultural property is damaged or, worse, destroyed in conflict, then that dignity is taken away. That sense of identity is taken away and undermined.
And it is much easier to reconstruct it after a conflict in communities who maintain that link to their past, their property, their heritage, than it is if that's all been destroyed."
The Allies thought that the Monte Cassino monastery was used by the Germans as an observation point so they flattened it.
Professor Nigel Pollard, an expert in cultural property protection, explains that any military use of a heritage site removed its immunity, exposing it to potential attacks. Those were the rules at the time, or lack thereof.
"There was a sort of simple binary distinction and between defended and undefended sites that defined whether armed forces could potentially attack them," Prof Pollard said.
"Any military use of a heritage site removed its immunity and potentially exposed it to whatever the attackers wanted to throw at it."
Post-World War II, efforts were made to enhance the protection of significant sites through the 1954 Hague Convention.
The 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict is the first and the most comprehensive multilateral treaty dedicated exclusively to the protection of cultural heritage during armed conflict, as well as in times of peace.
The treaty obligates: "Developing initiatives which guarantee respect for cultural property situated on their own territory or on the territory of other States Parties.
"This involves refraining from using such property in any manner that might expose it to destruction or deterioration in the event of armed conflict, and by refraining from all acts of hostility directed against it."
Armed forces were required to refrain from not only using cultural and historic sites but also the surrounding area.
This approach, if applied at Monte Cassino, could have limited the German ability to use Monastery Hill, and it would have made the Allies think twice before bombing it.
The destruction of the monastery did not help the Allied campaign, it worked against them.
While New Zealand troops stormed the town below, Indian troops were tasked with an attack on Monastery Hill.
The Allied troops were not in position, making it easy for elite German Paratroopers to occupy the ruins.
Two decades later, another piece of legislation, the 1977 Protocol I amendment to the Geneva Conventions asks troops to consider whether the military advantage gained outweighs the risks of damaging the site.
Prof Pollard notes: "If they concluded that they had to attack in the vicinity of the heritage site, they would be obliged to choose their weapons accordingly to minimise the damage."
Despite these legislative efforts, the stark reality persists. Recent conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza have witnessed the damaging of hundreds of historical landmarks, raising questions about the effectiveness of international agreements.
Prof Stone explains that the problem with the Hague Convention is "it is essentially a peacetime convention".
"So, everything should be put in place for what's technically called the safeguarding of heritage and the respect of other people's heritage in peacetime."
This would then make it easier to move valuable museum collections in preparation for war.
Despite these legislative efforts, the stark reality persists. Recent conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza have witnessed the damaging of historical landmarks, which raises questions about the effectiveness of international agreements.
The Battle of Monte Cassino lasted for 122 days from 17 January to 18 May 1944 and was one of the bloodiest campaigns of the Second World War in Western Europe.
Troops from Britain, the US, Canada, France, India, New Zealand, South Africa and Poland were among the diverse forces engaged in the four months of fighting.
The human cost of the battle was 55,000 Allied casualties and the lives of 2,000 civilians.
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